Abstract
Cusco, the historic capital of the Incan Empire and a major cultural and tourist hub in Peru, has undergone significant gender transformations over centuries. This dissertation explores gender dynamics in Cusco from the pre-Columbian era to the present day. It examines the intersection of indigenous traditions, colonial legacies, and contemporary social structures in shaping gender roles. Furthermore, it highlights the impact of globalisation, tourism, and LGBTQ+ rights movements on gender perceptions in Cusco. The research employs historical analysis, sociocultural frameworks, and contemporary case studies to provide a comprehensive understanding of gender in this unique urban and cultural space.
Introduction
Gender studies in Latin America often focus on broader national trends, but localised analyses provide deeper insights into the interaction between historical legacies and modern societal changes. Cusco, with its rich indigenous and colonial history, offers a compelling case for gender analysis. This study aims to answer the following questions:
- How have gender roles evolved in Cusco from Incan times to the present?
- What are the major factors influencing contemporary gender dynamics?
- How do tourism, globalisation, and LGBTQ+ movements affect gender perceptions in Cusco?
By addressing these questions, this dissertation contributes to both historical and contemporary gender discourse in Latin America. It also provides a comparative framework to understand gender dynamics in other Latin American cities with strong indigenous heritage.
Historical Gender Roles in Cusco
Gender Structures in the Incan Empire
The Incan Empire (1438–1533) had a dualistic gender system known as complementarity, where men and women had distinct but equally significant roles. Women engaged in agriculture, textile production, and religious ceremonies, particularly within the Aclla Cuna (chosen women) system, which trained women for elite service.
The complementary gender system was evident in economic and spiritual life. Women were responsible for chicha (corn beer) production, which held great religious and social significance, while men focused on large-scale agricultural labor. Both genders played roles in religious ceremonies, with female priestesses dedicated to the worship of Mama Quilla (Moon Goddess), emphasising the balance of male and female deities.
Additionally, gender roles in the Incan Empire were largely hereditary, meaning children were often expected to follow the occupations of their parents. Despite this structured system, Incan women could own land and were involved in decision-making processes within the ayllu (community). This level of gender equity changed drastically with the Spanish conquest.
Spanish Colonial Influence on Gender Norms
Spanish colonisation (1533–1821) imposed a patriarchal Catholic system that disrupted indigenous gender dynamics. The Spanish introduced rigid gender roles centered on marianismo (idealised femininity based on the Virgin Mary) and machismo (male dominance). Indigenous women were marginalised, often forced into domestic labor or religious conversion, while men adopted European social structures. The imposition of Catholic marriage laws further reinforced gender subjugation.
The encomienda system exacerbated gender inequalities by placing indigenous women in servitude roles, often leading to abuse and exploitation. Additionally, Spanish laws prevented women from inheriting land, further restricting their autonomy. The extirpation of idolatries campaign sought to eliminate indigenous religious practices, reducing women’s roles as spiritual leaders.
Despite these limitations, indigenous women found ways to resist colonial oppression, often by maintaining indigenous customs in secret or by forming alliances with Spanish elites through strategic marriages. The fusion of indigenous and Spanish cultures led to a mestizo society, where gender roles continued evolving within a hybrid framework.
Modern Gender Norms and Social Dynamics
Gender Roles in Contemporary Cusco
Despite centuries of change, Cusco retains traditional gender roles alongside modern influences. Women increasingly participate in formal employment, particularly in tourism, handicrafts, and education. However, gender disparities remain in politics, wage equality, and property ownership. Indigenous women, in particular, face barriers due to language, economic status, and cultural discrimination.
Many indigenous women in Cusco still adhere to Quechua cultural norms, which emphasise collectivism and familial duty. However, younger generations are increasingly rejecting traditional expectations in favor of urban migration and higher education. The rise of women’s cooperatives has empowered many by providing financial independence through traditional weaving and artisan crafts.
Machismo and Marianismo in Peruvian Culture
Machismo remains deeply embedded in Peruvian culture, reinforcing male authority and female submission. However, women are actively resisting these norms through education, feminist activism, and economic independence. Marianismo continues to shape expectations of motherhood and virtue, particularly in rural Cusco.
Programs promoting gender equality have been implemented in Cusco, but they often face resistance from conservative communities. Domestic violence remains a significant issue, with reports of gender-based violence increasing despite legal protections. However, grassroots organisations, such as Casa de la Mujer Cusqueña, are working to provide shelter and advocacy for women facing abuse.
LGBTQ+ Experiences in Cusco
Legal Rights and Cultural Attitudes
Peru does not legally recognise same-sex marriage, and LGBTQ+ individuals face societal discrimination. In Cusco, LGBTQ+ visibility is growing, particularly among younger generations and in artistic communities. However, rural areas remain conservative, making LGBTQ+ acceptance uneven.
Visibility and Activism
Cusco has seen increasing LGBTQ+ activism, with pride events and community support networks emerging. Organisations such as Movimiento Homosexual de Lima (Mhol) advocate for LGBTQ+ rights across Peru, with localised efforts gaining traction in Cusco. However, many LGBTQ+ individuals continue to face social ostracization, workplace discrimination, and barriers in healthcare access.
Gender and Tourism in Cusco
Impact of Tourism on Gender Roles
Tourism plays a vital role in Cusco’s economy, with significant gendered labor divisions. Women dominate the handicraft and hospitality industries, while men are prevalent in tour guiding and transportation. Western tourists bring different gender expectations, sometimes challenging local norms.
Western Influence on Gender Perceptions
The influx of foreign visitors and expatriates has introduced feminist and LGBTQ+ discourses, gradually reshaping local perspectives. However, cultural tensions exist between traditional gender expectations and modern influences.
The reliance on tourism also has unintended consequences, such as hypersexualisation of indigenous women, particularly in nightlife and entertainment sectors where foreign visitors engage with locals under different cultural assumptions.
Conclusion
Gender in Cusco is shaped by a complex interplay of history, culture, economy, and globalisation. While indigenous traditions, colonial legacies, and machismo persist, contemporary shifts—driven by education, tourism, and activism—are challenging these norms. Future research should explore intersectional perspectives, particularly the role of race, class, and rural-urban divides in shaping gender identities in Cusco.